psychologists Women

psychologists Women
Women psychologists
Women and psychology
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1. Christine Ladd-Franklin
2. Melanie Klein
3. Karen Horney
4. Leta Hollingworth
5. Anna Freud
6. Mary Whiton Calkins
7. Sandra Bem
8. Mary Ainsworth

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Important Women in Psychology History
Eminent Women in Psychology

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Mary Ainsworth
Mary Ainsworth was a developmental psychologist perhaps best-known for her "Strange Situation" assessment of early childhood attachment. She made many important contributions to attachment theory and her work has played an important role in our understanding of child development.
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Sandra Bem
Sandra Bem is a contemporary psychologist known for her gender schema theory. She developed the Bem Sex Role inventory, which measures how well people fit into traditional gender roles and characterizes personality as masculine, feminine, androgynous, or undifferentiated.
Mary Whiton Calkins
Mary Whiton Calkins is probably best-known as the first woman president of the American Psychological Association, but she made many more contributions to the field as well. She studied had Harvard with famous teachers including William James and Hugo Munsterberg. Despite completing all of the requirements for a doctorate degree in psychology, Harvard refused to grant her degree simply because she was a woman.
Anna Freud

Library of Congress / Public Domain
Anna Freud was the daughter of Sigmund Freud. She was influenced by her father's psychoanalytic theories, but her own contributions to ego psychology and child psychoanalysis made her an important theorist in her own right. Her father is often referred to as history's most famous psychologist, but she was far from just living in his shadow. She is perhaps best-known as the founder of child psychoanalysis and for her description of the ego's defense mechanisms in her book The Ego and the Mechanisms of Defense (1936).
Leta Hollingworth
Leta Stetter Hollingworth is known for her important work with exceptional children, but she was also one of the early pioneers in the psychology of women. She challenged the view at the time that women less gifted and talented than men by conducting a large scale study of more than 2,000 male and female infants. She later shifted her focus to the study of exceptional children and the environmental and educational factors that could help nurture giftedness.
Karen Horney

Karen Horney was a prominent psychoanalyst known for her important contributions to psychology through her work with neurosis, feminine psychology, and self psychology. While Horney was a neo-Freudian, she was also famous for challenging many of Sigmund Freud's theories about women. For example, Horney countered Freud's assertion that women experience "penis envy" by suggesting that men feel "womb envy" because they are unable to bear children.
Melanie Klein
Melanie Klein was an Austrian psychoanalyst best known for creating the therapeutic technique known as play therapy. She was one of the first people to use traditional psychoanalysis with children and the therapeutic techniques she used continue to have an important influence on contemporary child psychology. Today, Kleinian psychoanalysis is considered to be one of the major schools of thought within the field of psychoanalysis.
Christine Ladd-Franklin
Christine Ladd-Franklin was a psychologist and logician who grew up in a family of women who were staunch supports of women's rights. These early influences may have help play a role in her adult career in academia and research, areas that were at the time not particularly open and welcoming to women. She studied at John Hopkins and completed a dissertation titled "The Algebra of Logic." However, the school did not permit women at that time to receive a Ph.D. The spent time in Germany studying with Hermann von Helmholzt and Artur Konig, and eventually rejected both of their theories of color vision to develop her own. Finally, in 1926, 42 years after completing her dissertation, John Hopkins awarded her the doctorate degree she had earned.
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History of Women in Psychology

Due to the efforts of many historians and psychologists, the historiography on women in psychology is now extensive. What appears below is a selection from this vast literature, focusing on treatments of individual lives or group analyses of lives and careers. Biographical and autobiographical material on women psychologists and information on their contributions can also be found in the nine-volume series A history of psychology in autobiography, the three-volume series The psychologists (T. S. Krawiec, Ed.), the multivolume Harvard University Press series, Notable American women, and the six-volume Portraits of pioneers in psychology series. Obituaries published in the American Psychologist (list is available at the APA archives website) are also a good source for information. Additionally, issues 1-4 of Volume 17 (1995) of the journal Women & Therapy, as well as Volume 5, Issue 1 (1980) of Psychology of Women Quarterly feature articles on female psychologists. Notably, our selections focus primarily on the North American and western European contexts.  Information on the history of women in psychology in other countries is welcomed. Contact alexr@yorku.ca.

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Aiyegbayo, O. (2005). Waveney Bushell: A pioneer black educational psychologist. History & Philosophy of Psychology, 7, 36-44.

Ash, M. G. (1995). Women émigré psychologists and psychoanalysts in the United States. In S. Quack (Ed.), Between sorrow and strength: Women refugees of the Nazi period (pp. 239-264). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.        

Benjamin, L. T., Jr. (1980). Women in psychology: Biography and autobiography. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 5, 140-144.

Benjamin, L. T., Henry, K. D., & McMahon, L. R. (2005). Inez Beverly Prosser and the education of African Americans. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 41, 43-62.

Bernstein, M. & Russo, N. (1974). The history of psychology revisited, or, Up with our foremothers. American Psychologist, 29, 130-134.

Bohan, J. S. (1995). Re-placing women in psychology: Readings toward a more inclusive history. Second Edition. Dubuque, IOWA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.

Bohan, J. S. (1990). Contextual history: A framework for re-placing women in the history of psychology. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 14, 213–227.

Bryan, A. I., & Boring, E. G. (1944). Women in American psychology: Prolegomenon. Psychological Bulletin, 41, 447-454.

Bryan, A. I., & Boring, E. G. (1946). Women in American psychology: Statistics from the OPP questionnaire. American Psychologist, 1, 71-79.

Bryan, A. I., & Boring, E. G.  (1947). Women in American psychology: Factors affecting their professional careers. American Psychologist, 2, 3-20.

Browne, R. B. (1969). Love my children: The education of a teacher. New York: Meredith Press. [The memoir of Rose Butler Browne, the first Black woman to earn a doctorate in education from Harvard University.]

Cameron, C.  E., & Hagen, J. W. (2005). Women in child development: Themes from the SRCD  oral history project. History of Psychology, 8, 289-316.

Campos, R. H. de Freitas (2001). Helena Antipoff (1892-1974): A synthesis of Swiss and Soviet psychology in the context of Brazilian education. History of Psychology, 4, 133-158.

Capshew, J. H., & Laszlo, A. C. (1986). “We would  not take no for an answer”: Women psychologists and gender politics during World War II. Journal of Social Issues, 42, 157- 180.

Chesler, P. Rothblum, E. D., & Cole, E. (Eds.)(1996). Feminist foremothers in women's studies, psychology, and mental health.New York: Routledge.

Corey-Seibold, M. L. (1982). Psychology's foremothers: Case studies of six women who shaped the development of American psychology. Ann Arbor, MI: University Microfilms International.

deFord, M. A. (1948). Psychologist unretired: The life pattern of Lillien J. Martin. Stanford: Stanford University Press.

de la Cour, L. (1987). The 'other' side of psychology: Women psychologists in Toronto from 1920-1945. Canadian Woman Studies, 8, 44-46.

Furumoto, L. (1979). Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930): Fourteenth president of the American Psychological Association. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 15, 346- 356.

Furumoto, L. (1987). On the margins: Women and the professionalization of psychology in the United States, 1890-1940. In M. G. Ash & W. R. Woodward (Eds.), Psychology in twentieth century thought and society (pg. 93-113). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Furumoto, L. (1992). Joining separate spheres - Christine Ladd-Franklin, Woman -scientist (1847-1930). American Psychologist,47, 175-182.

Furumoto, L. (1994). Christine Ladd-Franklin's color theory: Strategy for claiming scientific authority?  In H. E. Adler & R. W. Rieber (Eds.), Aspects of the history of psychology in America, 1892-1992 (pp. 91-112). Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, Vol 727. Washington, DC: APA.

Furumoto, L. (2003). Beyond great men and great ideas: History of psychology in sociocultural context. In P. Bronstein & K. Quina (Eds.), Teaching gender and multicultural awareness: Resources for the psychology classroom (pp. 113–124). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Furumoto, L., & Scarborough, E. (1986). Placing women in the history of psychology: The first American women psychologists.American Psychologist, 41, 35-42.

Furumoto, L., & Scarborough, E. (1987). Placing women in the history of comparative psychology: Margaret Floy Washburn and Margaret Morse Nice. In E. Tobach (Ed.), Historical perspectives and the international status of comparative psychology (pp. 103-117). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Gilbreth, L. M. (1998). As I remember: An autobiography. Norcross, GA: Engineering and Management Press.

Gundlach, H. Roe, R. Sinatra, M. & Tanucci, G. (Eds.).(2010). European pioneer women in psychology. Milano, Italy: FrancoAngeli Psicologia 

Guthrie, R. V. (1998). Even the rat was white: A historical view of psychology (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. [Offers biographical accounts of a selection of early African-American women psychologists.]

Higgins, F.C. (1918). The life of Naomi Norsworthy. New York: Houghton-Mifflin.

Hogan, J. D., & Sexton, V. S. (1991). Women and the American Psychological Association. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 15,623-634.

Hollingworth, H. L. (1943). Leta Stetter Hollingworth. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

Johnston, E., & Johnson, A. (2008). Searching for the second generation of American women psychologists. History of Psychology, 11, 40-69.

Keates, J. & Stam, H. J. (2009). "The disadvantaged psychological scene": Educational experiences of women in early Canadian psychology. Canadian Psychology, 50, 273-282.

Klein, A. G. (2002). A forgotten voice: A biography  of Leta Stetter Hollingworth. Scottsdale, AZ: Great Potential Press.

Koppes, L. L. (1997). American female pioneers of industrial and organizational psychology during the early years. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82, 500-515. [Features the work of Marion Bills, Elsie Bregman, Lillian Gilbreth, and Mary Holmes Hayes.]

Lal, S. (2002). Giving children security: Mamie Phipps Clark and the racialization of child psychology. American Psychologist, 57,20-28.

Milar, K. S. (1999). "A Coarse and Clumsy Tool": Helen Thompson Woolley and the Cincinnati Vocational Bureau. History of Psychology, 2(3): 219-235.

Milar, K. S. (2000). The first generation of women psychologists and the psychology of women. American Psychologist, 55, 616-619.

Minton, H. L. (2000). Psychology and gender at the turn of the century. American Psychologist, 55, 613-615.

Mitchell, M. B. (1951). Status of women in the American Psychological Association. American Psychologist, 6, 193-201.

Morse, J. F. (2002). Ignored but not forgotten: The work of Helen Bradford Thompson Woolley. NWSA Journal, 14, 121-147.

O'Connell, A. N., & Russo, N. F. (Eds.). (1980). Eminent women in psychology: Models of achievement. New York: Human Sciences Press.

O'Connell, A. N., & Russo, N. F. (Eds.). (1983). Models of achievement: Reflections of eminent women in psychology. New York: Columbia University Press.

O'Connell, A. N., & Russo, N. F.  (Eds.). (1990). Women in psychology: A bio-bibliographic sourcebook. New York: Greenwood Press.

O'Connell, A. N., & Russo, N. F. (1991). Women's heritage in psychology: Past and present. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 15,495-504.

O'Connell, A. N. (2001). Models of achievement: Reflections of eminent women in psychology, volume 3. New York: Psychology Press.

Pettit, M. (2008). The new woman as "tied up dog": Amy E. Tanner's situated knowledges. History of Psychology, 11, 145-163.

Roazen, P. (1985). Helene Deutsch: A psychoanalyst's life. New York: New American Library.

Rossiter, M. W. (1982). Women scientists in America: Struggles and strategies to 1940. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Russo, N. F., & Denmark, F. L. (1987). Contributions of women to psychology. Annual Review of Psychology, 38, 279-298.

Russo, N. F., & O'Connell, A. N. (1980). Models from our past: Psychology's foremothers. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 5, 11-53. [This whole issue contains biographical articles on women, including Mary Whiton Calkins, Margaret Floy Washburn, Karen Horney, Edna Heidbreder, Mary Cover Jones, Anne Roe, and Susan Gray.]

Rutherford, A., & Pickren, W. E. (2008). Women and minorities in psychology. In S. Davis and B. Buskist (Eds.), The handbook of 21^st century psychology (pp. 25-36). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Rutherford, A. (2005). The woman problem. The General Psychologist, 40(1). 14.15.

Scarborough, E. (1992). Mrs. Ricord and psychology for women, circa 1840. American Psychologist, 47, 274-280.

Scarborough, E. (1992). Women in the American Psychological Association. In R. B. Evans, V. S. Sexton, & T. Cadwallader (EDs.),The American Psychological Association: A historical perspective (pp. 303-325). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Scarborough, E., & Furumoto, L. (1987). Untold lives: The first generation of American women psychologists. New York: Columbia University Press.

Shields, S. A. (2007). Passionate men, emotional women: Psychology constructs gender difference in the late 19th century. History of Psychology, 10, 92-110.

Shields, S. A. & Kappas, A. (Eds.)(2006). Magda B. Arnold's contributions to emotion research and theory. New York: Psychology Press.

Shields, S. A. (1975). Ms. Pilgrim's progress: The contributions of Leta Stetter Hollingworth to the psychology of women. American Psychologist, 30, 852-857.

Simmel, M. L. (1986). A tribute to Eugenia Hanfmann, 1905-1983. Journal of the History of the Behavioral Sciences, 22, 348-356.

Stevens, G., & Gardner, S. (1985). Psychology of the scientist: LIV. Permission to excel: A preliminary report of influences on eminent women psychologists. Psychological Reports, 57. 1023-1026.

Stevens, G., & Gardner, S. (1982). The women of psychology: Vol. I. Pioneers and innovators. Cambridge, MA: Schenkman.

Stevens, G., & Gardner, S. (1982). The women of psychology: Vol. II. Expansion and refinement. Cambridge, MA: Schenkman.

Storm, C. & Gurevich, M. (2001). Looking forward, looking back: Women in psychology. Canadian Psychology, 42, 245-248.

Unger, R. K. (Ed.). (2004). Handbook of the psychology of women and gender. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Valentine, E. R. (2006). Beatrice Edgell: Pioneer woman psychologist. New York: Nova Science.

Warren, W. (1999). Black women scientists in the United States. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. [Includes information on Inez Prosser, Mamie Clark, Ruth Howard, Alberta Banner Turner, and others.]

Wentworth, P. A. (1999). The moral of her story: Exploring the philosophical and religious commitments in Mary Whiton Calkins' self-psychology. History of Psychology, 2, 119-131.

Woodward, W. R. (2010). Russian women emigrees in psychology: Informal Jewish networks. History of Psychology, 13, 111-137.

Wright, M. J. (1992). Women ground-breakers in Canadian psychology: World War II and its aftermath. Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 33(4), 657-682.

Young-Breuhl, E. (2004). Anna Freud: A biography, 2nd Edition. New Haven and London: Yale University Press.

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Women in Psychology

Over many years I have had a strong interest in the important role that women have played in the development of American psychology. Here are just a few of them who have had an important influence on me. 

Leta Stetter Hollingworth (1886-1939)

Leta Hollingworth was an important contributor to the psychology of women, clinical psychology, and educational psychology, particularly education of the gifted. She was among the first to critically examine scientific beliefs about women’s “nature” and women’s social role. For example, she studied cognitive and motor skills throughout the menstrual cycle and showed that there were no debilitating effects, contrary to prevailing medical thought. She also addressed the “variability hypothesis,” the then-popular notion that on any given psychological or physical dimension females, as a sex, varied less from one another than did males. She developed courses on adjustment and adolescence and published The Psychology of the Adolescent (1928) which was a standard text for the next two decades. Gifted Children (1926) and Children Above 180 IQ (1942) are her best known works. She conducted intensive classroom-based research with gifted children. She found, for example, that many gifted children were treated ineptly by adults and subsequently developed adjustment problems. Her work did much to dispel the notion that very bright children were fragile, clumsy, and eccentric. Hollingworth was also a leader in efforts to professionalize clinical psychology.

Magda Arnold (1903-2002)

Magda Arnold is one of the founding mothers of contemporary emotion theory. Her pathbreaking work began during the period of American psychology when behaviorism was the dominant paradigm, personality theory was more allied with abnormal psychology than with normal social and cognitive processes, and emotion was generally construed as “activation” that was disruptive of behavior except within a narrow band of “optimal arousal.” 

Arnold was drawn to study emotion in the early 1940s because of her interest in personality psychology, and by the 1960s she had become a leader in emotions research in the United States. She is perhaps best known today for Emotion and Personality(1960). In this two-volume work she surveyed the long-neglected field of emotion research. She outlined a theory that would integrate the psychological, neurological, and physiological aspects of affective phenomena so as to position emotion in personality organization. 

Carolyn W. Sherif (1922-1982)

Carolyn Sherif’s research focused on the self-system, intergroup conflict and cooperation, and social judgment. Her work with Muzafer Sherif represented a collaborative effort in the truest sense. Collaborative projects included Groups in Harmony and Tension (1953), which describes one of best known field studies in psychology, the Robbers Cave experiment, as well as Reference Groups (1964), Attitude and Attitude Change (1965) and others. Their collaboration produced a distinctive approach to social psychology. They rejected the schism between “psychological” and “sociological” social psychology and were interdisciplinary before that term became fashionable. 

Carolyn Sherif’s dedication to women’s professional concerns and the need for scientific interest in women’s status came to the forefront in the 1970s. She often recalled the importance of her participation in the first graduate seminar on the psychology of women at Penn State in 1972 as a factor in crystallizing her research and professional commitment to these concerns. She brought an innovative perspective to the psychology of women and gender. For example, she advocated analysis of gender identity from the perspective of the self-system, showing that it offers a broadly based, process oriented conceptualization of gender. 
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Kenneth and Mamie Clark

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the psychologists. For other persons with similar names, see Ken Clark or Mamie

Kenneth Bancroft Clark (July 14, 1914 – May 1, 2005) and Mamie Phipps Clark (April 18, 1917 – August 11, 1983)^[1] were African-American psychologists who as a married team conducted important research among children and were active in the Civil Rights Movement. They founded the Northside Center for Child Development in Harlem and the organization Harlem Youth Opportunities Unlimited(HARYOU).^[2]. Kenneth Clark also was an educator and professor at City College of New York, and first Black president of the American Psychological Association.

They were known for their 1940s experiments using dolls to study children's attitudes about race. The Clarks testified as expert witnesses inBriggs v. Elliott, one of the cases rolled into Brown v. Board of Education (1954). The Clarks' work contributed to the ruling of the U.S. Supreme Court in which it determined that de jure racial segregation in public education was unconstitutional. Chief Justice Earl Warren wrote in the Brown v. Board opinion, “To separate them from others of similar age and qualifications solely because of their race generates a feeling of inferiority as to their status in the community that may affect their hearts and minds in a way unlikely to ever be undone”.^[3]

Contents   [hide]  1 Mamie Phipps Clark 2 Kenneth Clark 2.1 Books 3 Doll experiments 4 Family 5 Legacy and honors 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links

[edit]Mamie Phipps Clark

The daughter of an educated family, Mamie Phipps was born in Hot Springs, Arkansas, to Harold and Katie Phipps. Her father was a doctor, a native of the British West Indies. Her mother helped him in his practice and encouraged both their children in education. Her brother became a dentist.^[1][4]

Phipps entered Howard University as a physics and mathematics major, but future husband and partner Kenneth Clark persuaded her to switch; she earned her B.A. magna cum laude in psychology (1938).^[1][4][5] They began their lifelong partnership and married in 1937. Both went on for additional study at Columbia University.

In 1943 Mamie Phipps Clark was one of the first African-American women to earn a Ph.D. in psychology from Columbia University.

At the end of World War II, Kenneth and Mamie Clark decided to try to improve social services for troubled youth in Harlem, as there were virtually no mental-health services in the community. Kenneth Clark was then an assistant professor at the City College of New York and Mamie Clark was a psychological consultant doing psychological testing at the Riverdale Children's Association, Kenneth Bancroft Clark and Mamie Phipps Clark approached social service agencies in New York City to urge them to expand their programs to provide social work,psychological evaluation, and remediation for youth in Harlem. None of the agencies took up their proposal. The Clarks "realized that we were not going to get a child guidance clinic opened that way. So we decided to open it ourselves."

Together in 1946 the Clarks created the Northside Center for Child Development, originally called the Northside Testing and Consultation Center. They started it in a one-room basement apartment of the Dunbar Houses on 158th Street (Manhattan)]. Two years later in 1948, Northside moved to 110th Street, across from Central Park, on the sixth floor of what was then the New Lincoln School. In 1974, Northside moved to its current quarters in Schomburg Plaza. It continues to serve Harlem children and their families in the 21st century.

Their goal was to match or surpass the quality of service for poor African Americans. It served as a location for initial experiments on racial biases of education and the intersection of education and varying theories and practices of psychology and social psychology.

The center recently celebrated its 60th anniversary of service to the Harlem community. The clinic provides therapeutic and educational support for children ages 5 to 17 and their families. Services include: diagnostic evaluations; individual, group, and family therapy; crisis intervention; tutoring and homework help; after school recreational and cultural activities; and parent education groups.

Mamie remained the Director of the Northside Center for 33 years. Upon her retirement, Dora Johnson, a staff member at Northside, captured the importance of Mamie Clark to Northside. “Mamie Clark embodied the center. In a very real way, it was her views, philosophy, and her soul that held the center together”. She went on to say that “when an unusual and unique person pursues a dream and realizes that dream and directs that dream, people are drawn not only to the idea of the dream, but to the uniqueness of the person themselves.”^[6] Her vision of social, economic, and psychological advancement of African American children resonates far beyond the era of integration.^[7]

[edit]Kenneth Clark

Dr. Kenneth Bancroft Clark. From the Chicago Urban League Photos (University of Illinois at Chicago)

Kenneth Clark was born in the Panama Canal Zone to Arthur Bancroft Clark and Miriam Hanson Clark. His father worked as an agent for the United Fruit Company. When he was five, his parents separated and his mother took him and his younger sister Beulah to the U.S. to live in Harlem inNew York City. She worked as a seamstress in a sweatshop, where she later organized a unionand became a shop steward for the International Ladies Garment Workers Union.^[8]

Clark attended Howard University, a historically black university (HBCU), where he first studied political science with professors including Ralph J. Bunche. He returned in 1935 for a master's in psychology.^[8] Dr. Clark was a distinguished member of Kappa Alpha Psi fraternity.

While studying psychology for his doctorate at Columbia University, Clark did research in support of the study of race relations by Swedish economist Gunnar Myrdal, who wrote An American Dilemma. In 1940, Clark was the first African American to earn a Ph.D. in psychology from Columbia University.

In 1942 Kenneth Clark became the first African-American tenured full professor at the City College of New York. In 1966 he was the first African American appointed to the New York State Board of Regents and the first African American to be president of the American Psychological Association.^[8]

Clark in 1962 was among the founders of Harlem Youth Opportunities Unlimited (HARYOU), an organization devoted to developing educational and job opportunities. With HARYOU, Clark conducted an extensive sociological study of Harlem. He measured IQ scores, crime frequency, age frequency of the population, drop-out rates, church and school locations, quality of housing, family incomes, drugs, STD rates, homicides, and a number of other areas^[2].--MScholl117 (talk) 02:09, 3 December 2011 (UTC) It recruited educational experts to help to reorganize Harlem schools, create preschool classes, tutor older students after school, and job opportunities for youth who dropped out. The Johnson administration earmarked more than $100 million for the organization. When it was placed under the administration of a pet project ofCongressman Adam Clayton Powell, Jr. in 1964, the two men clashed over appointment of a director and its direction.^[8]

Clark used HARYOU to press for changes to the educational system to help improve black children's performance. While he at first supported decentralization of city schools, after a decade of experience, Clark believed that this option had not been able to make an appreciable difference and described the experiment as a "disaster."^[8]

Following race riots in the summer of 1967, U.S. President Lyndon Johnson appointed the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders (Kerner Commission). The Commission called Clark among the first experts to testify on urban issues. In 1973, Clark testified in the trial ofRuchell Magee.^[9]

Clark retired from City College in 1975, but remained an active advocate for integration throughout his life. He opposed separatists and argued for high standards in education, continuing to work for children's benefit. He consulted to city school systems across the country, and argued that all children should learn to use Standard English in school.^[8]

Clark died in Hastings-on-Hudson, New York in May 2005, over twenty years after his beloved partner Mamie.

[edit]Books

• Prejudice and Your Child (1955)
• Dark Ghetto (1965)
• A Possible Reality (1972)
• Pathos of Power (1975)

[edit]Doll experiments

The Clarks' doll experiments grew out of Mamie Clark's master's degree thesis. They published three major papers between 1939 and 1940 on children's self perception related to race. Their studies found contrasts among African-American children attending segregated schools inWashington, DC versus those in integrated schools in New York.^[10] The doll experiment involved a child being presented with two dolls. Both of these dolls were completely identical except for the skin and hair color. One doll was white with yellow hair, while the other was brown with black hair.^[11] The child was then asked questions inquiring as to which one is the doll they would play with, which one is the nice doll, which one looks bad, which one has the nicer color, etc. The experiment showed a clear preference for the white doll among all children in the study.^[12] These findings exposed internalized racism in African-American children, self-hatred that was more acute among children attending segregated schools.

This work suggests that by its very nature, segregation harms children and, by extension, society at large, a suggestion that was exploited in several legal battles. The Clarks testified as expert witnesses in several school desegregation cases, including Briggs v. Elliott, which was later combined into the famous Brown v. Board of Education (1954). In 1954, Clark and Isidor Chein wrote a brief whose purpose was to supply evidence in the Brown v. Board of Education case underlining the damaging effects racial segregation had on African-American children. The U.S. Supreme Court ruled that racial segregation in public education was unconstitutional.^[3]

In 2006 filmmaker Kiri Davis recreated the doll study and documented it in a film entitled A Girl Like Me. Despite the many changes in some parts of society, Davis found the same results as did the Drs. Clark in their study of the late 1930s and early 1940s.

In an alternative^{[citation needed]} interpretation of the Clark doll experiments, Robin Bernstein has recently argued that the children's rejection of the black dolls could be understood not as victimization or an expression of internalized racism but instead as resistance against violent play involving black dolls, which was a common practice when the Clarks conducted their tests.^[13]

[edit]Family

The Clarks had two children: a son Hilton and daughter Kate. During the Columbia University protests of 1968, Hilton was a leader of the Society of Afro-American Students; his father negotiated between them and the university administration. Kate Clark Harris directed the Northside Center for Child Development for four years after her mother's death.

A 60 Minutes report in the 1970s noted that Clark, who supported integration and desegregation busing, moved to Westchester County in 1950 because of his concern about failing public schools in the city.^[14] Clark said: "My children have only one life and I could not risk that."^[8][14]

[edit]Legacy and honors

• 1961 – Kenneth Clark received the Spingarn Medal of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) for his contributions to promoting integration and better race relations.
• 1966 – Columbia University awarded each Clark the Nicholas Murray Butler Silver Medal, for the significance of their work.^[5]
• 1970 – Kenneth B. Clark was awarded an honorary doctorate (LL.D.) by Columbia University.^[5]
• 1994 - 102nd annual meeting of APA, 40 years after Brown v. Board of Education, Dr. Clark was presented with the APA Award for Outstanding Lifetime Contribution to Psychology. He was only one of six psychologist to receive that prestigious award.^[15]
• 2002 – Molefi Kete Asante named Kenneth Clark on his list of 100 Greatest African Americans.^[16]

[edit]References

1. ^ ^a b c Stephen N. Butler (October 1, 2009). "Mamie Katherine Phipps Clark (1917–1983)". Encyclopedia of Arkansas History & Culture. Retrieved 2009-12-27.
2. ^ ^a b Freeman, Damon (2008). Kenneth B. Clark and the Problem of Power. Philadelphia, PA: Taylor & Francis. DOI: 10.1080/00313220802377362
3. ^ ^a b Ludy T. Benjamin, Jr. A Brief History of Modern Psychology, pp.193-195. Blackwell Publishing (2007). ISBN: 9781405132053
4. ^ ^a b Guthrie, R., "Mamie Phipps Clark", Women in psychology, O'Connell, A. and Russo, N., Eds. (1990), Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood Press.
5. ^ ^a b c "Kenneth B. Clark and Mamie Phipps Clark", Columbia University.
6. ^ Markowitz, G., & Rosner, D. (1996). In Children, power and race (pp 246). Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia.
7. ^ Lal, S. (2002). Giving Children Security. American Psychologist Association (57)(1), 20–28.
8. ^ ^{a b c d e f g} Richard Severo, "Kenneth Clark, Who Fought Segregation, Dies", The New York Times, 2 May 2005, accessed 20 Jan 2009
9. ^ Close, Alexandra (June 1973) "Ruchell Magee: The Defense Never Rests" Ramparts: 21–24 . Retrieved January 23, 2011
10. ^ "Segregation Ruled Unequal, and Therefore Unconstitutional", Psychology Matters, American Psychological Association. Undated. Accessed 29 March 2010.
11. ^ Clark, Kenneth B. and Clark, Mamie P. (1947). "Racial identification and preference among negro children." In E. L. Hartley (Ed.) Readings in Social Psychology. New York: Holt, Reinhart, and Winston.
12. ^ Dweck, Carol S. (2009). Prejudice: How It Develops and How It Can Be Undone. Switzerland: Karger. DOI: 10.1159/000242351
13. ^ Robin Bernstein, Racial Innocence: Performing American Childhood from Slavery to Civil Rights, (New York: New York University Press, 2011), 235-242.
14. ^ ^a b Frum, David (2000). How We Got Here: The '70s. New York, New York: Basic Books. p. 264. ISBN 0465041957.
15. ^ Benjamin, L. T., Jr. & Crouse, E. M. (2002). The American Psychological Association's response to Brown v. Board of Education: The case of Kenneth B. Clark. American Psychologist, 57, 38–50.
16. ^ Asante, Molefi Kete (2002). 100 Greatest African Americans: A Biographical Encyclopedia. Amherst, New York. Prometheus Books. ISBN 1-57392-963-8.

[edit]Further reading

• Clark, K.B. The Dark Ghetto: Dilemmas of Social Power (New York: Harper & Row, 1965).
• Guthrie, R. 1976. Even the rat was white, New York: Harper and Row.
• Abbott, Shirley. “Mamie Phipps Clark, a Hot Springs Woman Who ‘overcame the odds.’” The Record 47 (2006): 15–22.
• O’Connell, Agnes N., and Nancy Felipe Russo, eds. Models of Achievement: Reflections of Eminent Women in Psychology. New York: Columbia University Press, 1983.
• Tussman, Joseph, ed. The Supreme Court on Racial Discrimination. New York: Oxford University Press, 1963.
• Warren, Wini. Black Women Scientists in the United States. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1999.
• Barbara A. Chernow and George A. Vallasi, ed. (1993). "Clark, Kenneth Bancroft". Columbia Encyclopedia (5th ed.). Columbia University Press. p. 569. ISBN 0-395-62438-X.

[edit]External links

• Notable New Yorkers – Kenneth Clark, Oral History Research Office at Columbia University.
• Notable New Yorkers – Mamie Clark, Oral History Research Office at Columbia University.
• Dr. Kenneth Clark interviewed on the WGBH series The Ten O'Clock News in 1988

§

Anne Anastasi

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article may contain wording that merely promotes the subject without imparting verifiable information. Please remove or replace such wording, unless you can cite independent sources that support the characterization. (July 2010)

Anne Anastasi
Born	December 19, 1908 New York City
Died	May 4, 2001
Nationality	United States
Fields	psychology
Known for	Psychological Testing

Anne Anastasi (December 19, 1908 – May 4, 2001) was an American psychologist best known for her pioneering development of psychometrics. Her seminal work, Psychological Testing, remains a classic text in which she drew attention to the individual being tested and therefore to the responsibilities of the testers. She called for them to go beyond test scores, to search the assessed individuals’ history to help them to better understand their own results and themselves.

Known as the “test guru,” Anastasi focused on what she believed to be the appropriate use of psychometric tests. As stated in an obituary, “She made major conceptual contributions to the understanding of the manner in which psychological development is influenced by environmental and experiential factors. Her writings have provided incisive commentary on test construction and the proper application of psychological tests.”.^[1] According to Anastasi, such tests only revealed what the test-taker knows at the time; they did not explain test scores. In addition, any psychometric measurement must take into account that aptitude is context-dependent. Anastasi stressed the importance of the role of the tester to correctly select, conduct, and evaluate tests.

She was president of the American Psychological Foundation (1965–1967). In 1987, she was awarded the National Medal of Science.^[2]

Contents   [hide]  1 Problems Researcher Addressed 2 Methods 3 Interpretation of Test Scores 4 Theoretical Stance 5 Criticism 6 References 7 External links

[edit]Problems Researcher Addressed

Anastasi’s (1983) essay “What Do Intelligence Tests Measure?”^[3] aimed to correct misinterpretations regarding the understanding and use ofaptitude and personality tests. Anastasi pointed out that the “testing boom” of the 1920s caused the term IQ to be adopted and misused by the general public. According to Anastasi, the misappropriation of the term created connotations that intelligence is heritable, stable throughout one’s lifespan, and resistant to change.^[4]

In contrast, Anastasi emphasized that psychometric scores convey an individual’s present status of what he or she knows. She cautioned against interpreting such tests as serving a strong predictive function, as scores only indicated to what degree a person acquired the knowledge and skills for the criterion of a given test. They evaluate for what is in high demand within a specific context; what an individual can achieve in the future depends not only on his or her present intellectual status as determined by the test, but also on subsequent experiences.^[4] Therefore, Anastasi advocated against psychometric tests definitively labelling a person, as they assess for specific types of knowledge and do not account for how intelligence can change over time.

Important to Anastasi was an understanding of the cultural frames of reference within which a test is developed. She stated that “No intelligence test can be culture free, because human intelligence is not culture free”.^[4] Therefore, according to Anastasi, the first step in developing an intelligence test within a given culture was formulating a task analysis in order to determine how well individuals gain knowledge valued within that culture.

[edit]Methods

Anastasi mostly applied existing methods to individual and group ability testing, as well as self-report inventories and measuring interests and attitudes. She followed the methodological principles of norms, reliability, validity, and item analysis. The essay “Psychological Testing: Basic Concepts and Common Misconceptions,”^[5] encapsulates Anastasi’s methodological positions. Anastasi stressed that, in order to evaluate any psychometric test, the tester must be knowledgeable of the main features of the tests, particularly as they apply to norms, validity, and reliability. Her approach to standard scores and standard deviation was one in which she believed that understanding statistical concepts was essential to understanding the meaning of statistical computation.^[6]

In regards to criterion-referenced tests, Anastasi diverged from educational psychologist Robert Glaser, who first introduced the concept in 1963.^[7] Instead of approaching such tests as fundamentally different from norm-referenced tests, Anastasi maintained that the two could be combined to give a more comprehensive evaluation of the individual's test performance. An example is the Stanford Diagnostic Test in reading and mathematics, which assesses specific subject mastery by combining both interpretations.^[6]

Anastasi recognized that there are many types of test reliability. However, when dealing with standardized testing, much of the variance in reliability can be minimized by controlling such conditions as the testing environment, rapport, instructions, and time limits.^[6]

In contrast with the belief that there are three kinds of validity - content validity, criterion validity, and construct validity - Anastasi espoused to the then-growing belief of the mid-1980s that many more procedures could be used to build validity into a test. Defining the constructs to be assessed initiates the validation process. It culminates with “validating and cross-validating various scores through statistical analyses against external, real-life criteria”.^[6]

[edit]Interpretation of Test Scores

In Psychological Testing: Basic Concepts and Common Misconceptions, Anastasi clarified differences between types of tests. Two differences between aptitude tests and achievement tests are test use and the degree of experiential specificity forming the foundation of the tests’ construction. Achievement tests are used to assess current status; aptitude tests can predict future performance as defined by their specific criteria. Experiential specificity is narrowly defined for achievement tests, such as SAT Subject Tests. In contrast, the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales aptitude tests are based on broad knowledge of American culture beginning in the twentieth century.^[6]

[edit]Theoretical Stance

Anastasi’s theoretical framework that ability or intelligence change with experience and that their cultural context dictates their parameters informed her methodological approach to psychometric testing. Tests should be selected and used while bearing in mind their contextual appropriateness and limitations. She emphasized that tests serve specific functions in Western society, such as school/occupational placement or to assess for mental disabilities.

[edit]Criticism

The 1955 first edition of Psychological Testing was criticized for attributing test results only to individual differences, instead of recognizing that “‘occasional differences’ are also measured by means of tests".^[8] In the latest edition of the book, Anastasi and her co-author Susana Urbina suggested that more accurate results can be obtained by combining information from several fairly homogeneous tests. Each one would cover a single trait, or different aspect of the criterion.^{[9][verification needed]}

[edit]References

1. ^ Reznikoff, M & Procidano, M (2001): "Anne Anastasi (1908-2001)", American Psychologist, 56:816-817
2. ^ National Science Foundation
3. ^ Anastasi, A. (A) (1983): "What do intelligence tests measure?" In S.B. Anderson & J.S. Hemlick (Eds.), On Educational Testing: Intelligence, Performance Standards, Test Anxiety, and Latent Traits, (pp. 5-28). San Francisco: CA: Jossey-Bass, Inc.
4. ^ ^a b c Anastasi, A. (A).
5. ^ Anastasi, A. (B) (1985): "Psychological testing: basic concepts and common misconceptions" In A.M. Rogers & C.J. Sheirer (Eds.), G. Stanley Hall Lecture Series, 5 (pp. 87-120). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
6. ^ ^{a b c d e} Anastasi, A. (B).
7. ^ Glaser, R. (1963): "Instrumental technology and the measurement of learning outcomes", American Psychologist, 18: 519-522.
8. ^ Guilford, J. (1955): "Review of Psychological Testing, Psychological Bulletin, 52(1), 97-98.
9. ^ Anastasi, Anne; Urbina, Susana (1997). Psychological Testing (Seventh ed.). Upper Saddle River (NJ): Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0023030857.Lay summary (28 July 2010).

• Hogan, John D (2003). "Anne Anastasi (1908-2001)". The American journal of psychology (United States) 116 (4): 649–53. ISSN 0002-9556. PMID 14723248.

[edit]External links

• Human Intelligence: Anne Anastatsi

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